Issue 2/2026, From the European Commission, Issue 2/2026, From the European Commission

Renewable freshwater resources in Europe

Posted on 26 February 202626 February 2026 by Monika Zabrzeńska-Chaterera

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The European Commission’s Joint Research Center (JRC) has analyzed water resources in Europe based on estimated demand from key economic sectors (including energy, agriculture, municipal sector) and estimated amounts of available freshwater. The results of the analysis are included in a review published by the JRC in February 2026 entitled Freshwater appropriation in Europe.

General background

Water is a precious resource. With the situations we are increasingly experiencing involving water scarcity or flooding, there is a need to implement measures to promote resilience. The review prepared by the JRC is part of the work to develop a coherent water balance in Europe. At the same time, it shows that water demand estimates are still subject to significant uncertainties, and patterns across sectors are changing.

Improving the water demand database will, in the view of the review’s authors, be a key element in supporting stable water management and the basis for informed policy decisions in the coming years.

Estimates of water demand in Europe

In its analysis, the JRC points out that there is a wide variation in freshwater resources in Europe, with preliminary estimates putting annual demand in the European Union at around 140-200 billion^{cubic meters}. According to the review’s authors, human activities are already consuming between 10 and 50 percent of available freshwater from European river basins. Moreover, it is forecast that resource availability is likely to worsen as global warming continues.

Examples of water requirements

The study cites several examples of water demand.

An example is given of cheese production in the EU, where water demand exceeds 50 billion^m3/year. Although the study does not specify what proportion of this amount is accounted for by green water from feed crops for cattle, sheep or goats (and thus already included in irrigation), it nevertheless indicates that a probable share of 10% (i.e. more than 5 billion^m3/year) could correspond to blue water, needed by industry (including for technological processes and cooling).

It is estimated that beer production will require 1.7 billion^{cubic meters (bcm} ) of water per year, even though only a small portion of this amount is for water used strictly for industry, with the rest related to crop irrigation.

The review’s authors thus suggest that the water-food nexus (involving links between water demand and crop or livestock production) is problematic and will become increasingly important for Europe.

An example was also given of semiconductor production, which currently requires about 0.5 billion^{cubic meters of} water per year, and it is estimated that this figure could be doubled by 2030.

Nonetheless, as the review’s authors point out, there are still knowledge gaps that need to be filled to try to understand the links between availability and demand and to prioritize investments in resilience to water scarcity in Europe. While freshwater use for domestic purposes is relatively well understood, that for energy, livestock, irrigation and industry requires further research.

Water resources under pressure

Identifying areas where water pressures are high and the sectors that drive them, the published analysis provides information to support a strategy for building resilience to water scarcity in the European Union. The importance of managing demand, applying efficiency-oriented approaches, and capturing and using data on water consumption in Europe is emphasized.

The results of the JRC’s review indicate that northern Europe is struggling with lower pressure, while river basins in the south of the continent, including the Mediterranean, have consistently seen higher levels of demand.

Across Europe, irrigation is proving to be the largest source of freshwater consumption pressure, particularly in river basins that are already under water stress. Livestock water demand often overlaps with irrigation water demand, reinforcing local pressures.

Large amounts of water, according to the review authors, are also consumed by energy production.

Climate change

Climate change is exacerbating the current situation, especially in irrigation and livestock farming. Nevertheless, there is broad potential for water reuse in various sectors, which can make a significant contribution to increasing resilience to shortages.

Climate projections indicate that the availability of freshwater is likely to continue to decline in southern Europe, increasing its use, especially for irrigation and animal husbandry.

In contrast, average availability may be stable or increasing in parts of northern Europe, adding to regional differences.

These trends indicate that climate change will exacerbate existing risks, making preventive action increasingly important.

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Water reuse

The JRC stresses the importance of water reuse and efficiency to promote resilience to scarcity. The study’s findings also indicate the potential for water reuse to reduce water consumption. Re-circulating treated wastewater, such as for agricultural irrigation, could become the most viable solution. It is estimated that under current conditions it could reduce water consumption by 5 to 20 percent.

The review’s authors indicate that industrial water may be more difficult to reuse due to concerns about its quality. The topic requires a separate evaluation.

There are also broader opportunities for water reuse in various sectors, which the review authors believe require further research, particularly where quality constraints can be managed.

Conclusions of the review

The authors of the review highlight the following:

Between 10 and 50 percent of naturally available water resources are allocated to human activities.
There is no general consensus on the limits of freshwater intake if planetary limits are not exceeded.
Implementing the principle of efficiency first can prove effective not only in minimizing the environmental impact of water abstraction, but also in reducing the dependence of economic activities on water.
Water demand can be quantified by taking into account the distribution of water-using activities over time and space and the relevant consumption factors used in estimating the environmental (water) footprint.
The demand for water is more uncertain than its availability and requires further research.
Improving the water balance remains a tool that deserves further development on a European scale to monitor and manage water efficiency targets.
Depletion of water resources can be reduced by reusing water in various sectors.
Irrigation is the sector that accounts for the highest percentage of variation in potential resource use in Europe – and is predicted to be the one most affected by climate change.
Changes in water availability due to climate trends require appropriate strategies to reduce water demand, including through crop adaptation.
More detailed tools, such as the LISFLOOD model, are needed to obtain more detailed assessments that take into account the temporal variability of both components.